Traditions and Wives Tales About Babies in Kenya

Open access peer-reviewed affiliate

Parenting and Civilisation – Evidence from Some African Communities

Submitted: June third, 2012 Reviewed: September 9th, 2013 Published: Dec 18th, 2013

DOI: 10.5772/56967

Patricia Mawusi Amos*
- University of Education, Winneba, National Centre for Research into Basic Pedagogy (NCRIBE), Winneba, Ghana

*Address all correspondence to: pathogrey@gmail.com

1. Introduction

Parenting requires interpersonal skills and makes emotional demands (Santrock, 2006). According to Santrock, most parents larn parenting practices from their own parents - some they accept and some they discard. The writer argues that when parenting methods are passed on from one generation to the next, both desirable and undesirable practices are perpetuated. These practices may be cultural values which have been passed on from one parent to some other.

Culture on the other hand is a way of life of a group of people- the behaviours, symbols, values, beliefs that people have, non really thinking about them and are passed by by and large communication and imitation from one generation to some other. With regards to African culture, people perceive most of its practices as something which is devilish in the sense that a lot of its practices are attributed to gods. Some people especially Africans, who have not fully experienced the indigenous civilisation believe that to be too culturally aware makes one backward and or ancient. This is as a result of lack of knowledge of our cultural values and principles.

In the African system, parenting is over again perceived to have a lot of forms which is able to lead the child to be a responsible developed. Though there are diverse parenting styles, at that place are ways in which the African parent brings up a child in society for the kid to imbibe the cultural values of the country and also be a responsible adult. Some of these forms of parenting are through story telling (folktales), the extended family unit, traditional rites and the mother's intendance, attention and dear. One may ask; are these cultural practices still in vogue? This chapter is an try to take readers through some of the parental cultural practices in some African communities.

1.1. Purpose

The purpose of this chapter will therefore be to expatiate on some of the various cultural practices in some sub-Saharan Africa which foster practiced parenting and besides state their relevance or importance to the African. The author will likewise state their various implications to parenting and suggest some recommendations.

1.2. Significance

Research shows that majority of books concerning infancy are from the western earth (Tomlinson & Swartz, 2003). In view of that African cultural values as far every bit parenting is concerned are being forgotten and the western practice is rather adopted. This chapter volition therefore enable readers particularly, Africans to be aware of some of the rich cultural practices of parenting. It will too add up to literature as far as parenting and culture in Africa is concerned as well as in the majority world.

In view of this some of import aspects that will exist discussed in this chapter with respect to parenting and civilization are:

Parenting
Culture
Some common values and practices in Republic of ghana, Nigeria and Liberia which foster skillful Parenting.
Some relevance of the cultural values and practices
Implication
recommendations

two. Parenting

Parenting is the procedure of raising and educating a child from birth or before until adulthood (Self Growth, 2012). Synonymously, parenting refers to carrying out the responsibilities of raising and relating to children in such a style that the kid is well prepared to realize his or her full potential equally a human existence. This implies that parenting is the procedure of taking care or supporting a child from nativity to adulthood involving the physical, emotional, social and intellectual capabilities. It tin simply mean the process or country of being a parent. In fact ane can exist a parent both to the biological or not-biological children.

Parenting usually takes place when one meets the defined criteria mentioned in the definition. According to Santrock (2006), parenting requires interpersonal skills and again makes emotional demands. Also, other researchers, for case Baumrind (1967) accept suggested that there are iv major styles of parenting. The researchers contend that majority of the parents brandish one of four different parenting styles. These styles are authoritarian parenting, administrative parenting, permissive parenting and uninvolved parenting.

According to Cherry (2012), authoritarian parenting mode wait the child to attach or follow the strict rules established by the parents. Failure to follow the rules will result in punishment. Commonly, because the parents have ordered, it must be washed without explanations and questions. On the other mitt, authoritative parents establish rules and guidelines that their children are expected to follow. However, this parenting style is much more democratic (Cherry, 2012 & Santrock, 2006). Parents with this style are responsive and ready to listen and cooperate. Baumrind (1991) argues that these parents are believing simply not intrusive and restrictive.

Santrock (2006) also stated that permissive parents have few demands to brand of their children. These parents allow their children a lot of freedom. They hardly punish or discipline them (Baumrind, 1991) whiles uninvolved parenting is attributed with few demands and little communication. Though the parents fulfil the needs of the child, they rarely get attached to the child (Crimson, 2012). Similarly, uninvolved parents brand few to no demands of their children and they are often indifferent, dismissive or even completely neglectful.

Numerous works on parenting have brought most a number of conclusions as far every bit the impact of parenting styles on children are concerned. Cherry (2012) reported that disciplinarian parenting styles normally result in children who are obedient and proficient but rank lower in happiness, social competence and self-esteem. On the contrast, Maccoby (1992) informed that authoritative parenting styles pb to children who are happy, capable and successful. Also, permissive parenting styles breed children who are low in happiness and uninvolved parenting styles atomic number 82 to children who have low self-control, low self-esteem and highly incompetent.

3. Differences in parenting styles

According to Ruddy (2012), parenting styles differ due to certain factors. These factors include culture, personality, parental background, educational level, socio-economic status, family unit size and organized religion. Of these factors, culture will be used to explain some similarities that exist in parenting in Ghana, Nigeria and Republic of liberia.

3.1. Civilization

Civilization is the mode a group of people live and it is a learned human behaviour patterns. Tylor (1958, p. 1) defined civilization this style: " that complex whole which includes cognition, belief, art, law, morals, custom and any other capabilities and habits acquired past man every bit a member of club".

Co-ordinate to O'Neil (2006), no thing where people live in the globe, they share some human cultural traits which are universal. Examples of such "human being cultural" traits include: communicating with a verbal language consisting of a limited ready of sounds and grammatical rules for constructing sentences, using historic period and gender to classify people (e.g., teenager, senior citizen, woman, human being), classifying people based on wedlock and descent relationships and having kinship terms to refer to them (e.grand., wife, mother, uncle, cousin). The others are raising children in some sort of family setting, having a concept of privacy, distinguishing between proficient and bad behaviour, having a sexual sectionalisation of labour (e.one thousand., men's work versus women'south work) making jokes and playing games.

While all cultures have these and possibly many other universal traits, different cultures accept developed their ain specific ways of carrying out or expressing them. And so as well is parenting. A civilisation is commonly passed from one generation to another, from knowledgeable adult to learning child. Since the adult has imbibed the norms and practices of the culture from older acculturated adults, this transmission is often simply through exposure and through case. For instance the Orangutan mother, who uses a specially prepared stick to fish out food from a crack, learnt this skill and is now teaching information technology to her child who is hanging on her shoulder and intently watching (parenting and culture).

Advertising

4. Some common values and practices in Ghana, Nigeria and Liberia that foster good parenting

iv.1. The extended family system

According to Degbey (2012), the family is usually the major source of the basic necessities of life and health; the love and tenderness, food, water, article of clothing, shelter and sanitation which are made possible past the socio-economical, cultural and environmental weather. Thus in discussing major issues with regards to parenting, it would exist impossible to overlook the functions of the family (Degbey, 2012).

It is basically known that in that location are two types of the family. These are the nuclear and the extended family. The nuclear family is fabricated up of only both parents and the children. The extended family is also made up of the nuclear family; in addition are the uncles, aunties, grandparents and cousins. It would exist emphasized that in the African community, the extended family unit is traditionally practiced (Degbey, 2012). In the aforementioned vein, information technology is a mutual cognition that when one speaks of the family in an African context, 1 is referring not to the nuclear family unit but the extended family (Gyekye, 1996).

According to Degbey (2012), the extended family system includes several generations plus cousins, uncles, and aunts living in a compound or close to ane another. Similarly, Adinlofu (2009) stated that the extended family is composed of a number of joint, chemical compound, uncomplicated and nuclear families occupying separate simply nearby homesteads. Degbey (2012) and Adinlofu (2009) farther noted that the extended family provides emotional needs to all involved. It is a cohesive unit which ideally provides economical, social and psychological security to all its members. Adinlofu (2009) made mentioned that the extended family ensures procreation of children and provides for the early intendance and grooming of children. Degbey (2012) besides added that this same family unit system defines "social and moral norms and safeguards both material and spiritual customs and traditions as well equally providing a variety of role models preparing the fashion for adulthood". Degbey (2012) emphasized that the potency of the elders/anile has a relatively high degree of social control on the individual specially, the youth.

The uniqueness of this system with regards to parenting in our traditional African communities is that the responsibility in taking care of the kid is not just to the biological parents. This is shared by all in the extended family. This is buttressed by the African maxim on parenting which says that, "a single hand cannot nurse a child". This implies that although the mother has the responsibleness of taking intendance of the kid, the responsibility is existence shared past all. Well-nigh of u.s.a. went to school on the strength of this arrangement; otherwise nosotros would have been stark illiterate and walking nigh aimlessly (Adinlofu, 2009). Co-ordinate to the writer, some of us must take read and heard comments like: "my parents were and then poor that it was my mum's blood brother or father's sister, that helped towards my education" or, that "information technology was my father's brother that trained me to read medicine, police or chemist's shop and it was my in-law that gave me money to go into business". Information technology is intriguing to know that this system is where a brother trained a younger brother or sister and they in turn aid to train younger ones or older siblings' children. This is why it is even said that even when parents are dead, a child would always accept 'parents'. This is because the extended family unit is in that location to cushion or parent the child.

Another uniqueness of this extended family system is that children or the youth stay at abode i.due east. alive with the family until they are set for marriage. Fifty-fifty if the immature adult is staying with the nuclear family, the practice is that yous marry before you leave the business firm. According to Gyekye (1996), growing adults are generally expected to live at abode-in the family unit house and they may exit only after they marry. Even after marriage the parents would still want to offering advice and guidance since they believe they the adults accept richer experiences than their children at any age.

At other instances, the extended family may not be together, but then the nuclear family unit may alive with other nuclear families who may not be relatives. This system of living is what nosotros phone call the "compound firm" arrangement. Also, this system allows any elderly person to subject or correct a kid.

4.2. Relevance

The extended family is a strong tool in parenting. Information technology helps to develop a potent sense of social responsibleness in the kid from his early years and learns to be respectful, responsible and supportive fellow member of the extended family and society.

v. Folktales

"A folktale may be described as a story handed down by oral tradition from oral fissure to ear amongst people generally; in fact illiterate, though not necessarily then …" (Dawkins, 1951, p. 417). Dawkins reiterated that many 18-carat folk stories accept been at kickoff literary and passed later into oral tradition. In a similar manner Emery (2012) says a folktale is a traditional narrative, usually bearding, handed downwardly orally e.yard. fables, fairy tales, legends etc. In African civilisation Story telling (folk tales) which used to be part and package of us is no more seen in our daily lives. During storytelling, we will accept the older ones telling the younger ones stories which depicted attributes such equally giving, caring for 1 another, greed, selfishness then on. These elderly people serve as parents in that their discussion of advice during the story fourth dimension helps to shape the younger ones. For case in Ghana, the Spider (traditionally called Kwaku Ananse) is by and large used in our folktales every bit the main graphic symbol. He is used to describe acts of greed, love, forgiveness, wisdom, pride etc.

One will be reminded that the story time is always in the evening; when the sun is prepare and all activities have come to a halt. According to Martin (2000) frequently such stories were told past the light of the moon around a village fire later on the completion of a long day of piece of work. It is believed that such times children and the youth will have a good listening ear for advice and what is ahead of them equally they climb the machismo ladder. Let usa comport in listen that these stories are not told past parents alone, merely by whatever adult who is depicted as responsive and caring and can impact adept morals to the children. This even is evidence that parents are not the only caretakers of the child equally he/she grows, but whatsoever adult in the customs who is responsible. Martin (2000) pointed out that the stories rarely ended with the words … "and they all lived happily ever afterward". Most stories didn't end happily ever after. The author noted, commonly, the stories taught a lesson and often, the selfish person learned that lesson the hard way.

Hither is an excerpt:

One twenty-four hour period Ananse nerveless all the wisdom in the world and decided to keep it all in a large pot for himself. Now he said "I have all the wisdom of the world for myself. At least that was what he thought; existence such a greedy person.

Kweku Ananse then tied the pot of wisdom around his neck with a strong vine rope and allow the pot hang in front end of him. But then he was afraid that someone would discover the pot of wisdom and steal it." What shall I do with my pot of wisdom" He thought and thought and at final he said," I shall hide the pot on top of the tallest tree in the forest." And so he searched the woods until he found the tallest tree which happened to be the thorny silk cotton tree and brought the pot of wisdom to the tree. While Ananse was trying to climb the thorny silk cotton tree his son was watching him." Father," he said," "What are you doing" "Well" said Ananse, I accept in this clay pot all the wisdom of the world and I am going to hang it on the top of the tallest tree away from everybody, so I volition be the wisest in the whole wide world." "I have an thought." said his son" Why not hang the pot behind y'all instead of in front of y'all. Then you will exist able to climb the tree". Well the sly one Ananse hanged the pot behind him and to his surprise; he was able to climb to the height of the tree with his pot.

Finally Ananse sat on a branch of the tree belongings the pot of wisdom. "I thought I had all the wisdom in the world" He idea to himself.

"I thought I had it all in my pot just my own son has wisdom not in my pot." And then he made a statement that nosotros still employ today." No i-person can have all the wisdom in the world. "On his way down he dropped the pot and it smashed into many pieces and scattered all the wisdom all over the earth.

(This story is contributed by Rev Peter Eastward Adotey Addo from his book, How the Spider became Bald...Folktales and Legends from Due west Africa adopted from http://www.allfolktales.com/wafrica/ananse_pot_of_wisdom.php).

The following are some examples of stories that were told and the lessons beingness learnt.

Story	Virtue/morals learnt
Don't pay bad for bad	Friendship
Grasshopper and toad	Friendship
Anansi and turtle	Greed
Why wisdom is everywhere (Anansi and the Wisdom pot)	Greed
The jealous brother	Lying
The twin brothers	Lying
No condition is permanent	Kindness
The riot	Kindness
The Leopard human	Obedience
Rere, the disobedient son	Obedience
Why wisdom is everywhere	Wisdom

Tabular array one.

Folktales and the virtues/morals learnt

These are but a few of some folktales told in the Ghanaian, Nigeria and Republic of liberia communities in Africa.

v.one. Relevance

A folktale in traditional setting is an effective means of inculcating the virtues in children (Gyekye, 1996). It is obvious from the explanations given and their examples that these folktales carry with it values and morals which are beingness handed from ane generation to the other. It teaches good morals which helps in parenting the child so he/she will learn to be a responsible developed.

Advert

6. Puberty rites

Another significant traditional practice which instils subject and fosters good parenting in our youth especially, the young girls is puberty rites. Information technology is one of the main traditional practices which take strongly been influenced past modernization and pedagogy.

Puberty rite is a traditional practice which is performed mainly on boyish girls to initiate them to womanhood. This rite is therefore believed to make women or girls good wives if they are able to go through the process successfully. Though this process is existence celebrated or performed by Nigeria, Liberia, Ghana and some African communities, there may be certain practices which may differ amid the countries. However, they follow a general pattern. These general patterns include:

notification of the boyish,
period of seclusion,
initiation rite then
Reintegration into the family equally an adult.

In view of this, the author would similar to describe briefly how adolescent girls in Ghana and Nigeria get through this process of puberty.

In Ghana the puberty rite is beingness historic past nearly of the ethnic groups in Ghana. For case some ethnic groups from the eastern office of Ghana call information technology "Dipo" and another from the cardinal and once more eastern part of Ghana call it "Bragro". As the time approaches for the initiation, declaration is given on behalf of the gods to prepare young girls who have reached the adolescent stage to partake in the rituals.

Qualified adolescent girls are and then taken to the queen mother who will and then prepare them physically for the ritual. In the case of the Dipo, the girls are given to the traditional priest. The queen mother will then examine the girls including their menstrual cycle to ensure that the girls are indeed virgins. If they laissez passer the test, their parents volition and so prepare them to the initiation house. This initiation house is under the supervision of responsible, elderly women and also some girls. The identified pubertal girls are then taught bug concerning women. These are marriage, housewifery, how to dress, pregnancy, kid birth and parenting. Similarly, in Igbo land in Nigeria, the young girls (the celebrants) would get together to learn private lessons of life from older women. In this gathering, immature ladies learn personal training, among other values. Their pilus would be plaited and their body polished with ufie (red cam wood) and adorned with uli designs. Songs, storytelling, and dancing would permeate the nighttime. Mothers would lay out the facts of life and what it meant to be beautiful. Traditionally in Republic of ghana, before the final initiation, the girls are regarded unclean. In view of that, they are shaved, cleaned (bathed) and smeared with some sheabutter. The women volition and so have the celebrants to the river side to wash three times every day. This will final for the menses of the ceremony. When it gets to the evening this aforementioned girls and women will assistance the celebrants to sing and dance with traditional love songs. This is done to invite suitors for the being initiated girls.

The last twenty-four hours is more than remarkable. On this day, the girls are over again led to the river. They are given a boiled egg to swallow. The egg must be swallowed whole. If the egg is chewed in that location is the fright that they may not have children if they practise chew information technology. After all these, the girls are finally dressed in special clothes and ornaments. These clothes are called 'Kente'. They are then seated in an open up identify. This is to show to the public that these girls have now entered womanhood and too showcase themselves to the men who would want suitors or wives. During this process, people including the girls' parents present their gifts for all to see. This is done amidst singing and dancing. For the Igbo's of Nigeria, on the last day of the festivities, mothers would cook and send the young girls off for a day of fun at the designated Village Square. Here, the girls would dance, trade tips, share meals, and simply have a nifty time. Meanwhile, eligible bachelors would watch from the periphery. At the end of it all, the girls can at present be taken domicile to their parents. At this juncture, they are given the right to marry whatever human who comes to seek their mitt in marriage from the parents.

1 aspect of this initiation is that, during the by years, whenever a girl ceases to go through the rite due to pregnancy or pre-marital sex, they are known to bring disgrace, shame and a curse to their families and the society. In view of that they are ostracized. This forever will bring a stigma to the girl'south family. In some communities, a ritual is performed for both the daughter and the man responsible for the pregnancy. The rite is a form of punishment for not waiting to get married before having sex and becoming pregnant. The rite is performed in public in society to deter other young girls and boys who are shortly to become adolescents to be patient until they are initiated and get married.

Most frequently, when puberty rite is mentioned, adolescent girls often come to the fore; but then boys who have also reached the adolescent stage also become through this passage. In Republic of ghana puberty rite for boys is often mutual in the northern part of the country which is scarcely talked about as compared to the girls'. In Liberia, some communities do initiate boys as well as in Nigeria. In Liberia for example, Immature Mano men of Liberia go through a ceremonial "death" at puberty. These young men are stabbed with a spear and thrown over a cliff to symbolize expiry and rebirth into adulthood. Actually, a protective padding is kept in the spear from penetrating them, and a sack of chicken claret was tied over the spot to appear as though the young men had been stuck. They are so tossed over the cliff, but a heavy object is thrown over instead to audio like they accept been thrown.

Before long, this puberty rite has been modernized due to education and also foreign religion. At present, the duration for the initiation has been reduced. Sometimes it fifty-fifty terminal for a solar day. Once again, the breasts of the ladies take at present been covered and also the adolescent stage is no more strictly enforced. Currently, parents fifty-fifty initiate their young girls as early as 4-ten years. Some do this with the reason being that they don't want the girls to accept pre-marital sexual practice or get pregnant when they have not gone through the initiation.

6.1. Relevance

Though puberty rite activities may differ from one African community to another, their reason for this initiation is similar. For case this puberty rite was initiated to prevent young girls and adolescents from teenage pregnancy, prostitution and the spread of sexually transmitted diseases. It was besides introduced to teach the young adult female how to be responsible and take care of her own family unit.

vii. The mother

Presently mothers are not oftentimes seen in the business firm as they used to be. It must exist emphasized that the involvement of more mothers in the modern labour force, deprives the children as well as the whole family of the daily dear and care so necessary for proper kid rearing and development.

During infancy, the child is breastfed for a longer time as compared to this modern time. This, it is believed, develop a bond between the baby and the female parent. Every bit the child grows, he/she sees the virtues beingness exhibited by the mother and all of these enhance good parenting.

African culture and values come across the mother as the keeper of the business firm. She is a housewife and makes sure that as the father is the bread winner, she must cater for all the domestic attribute of the children. Currently, there has been a prototype shift. Since our day to day lives many of united states are overstretched, we sometimes approach parenting tired and overwhelmed and as a consequence leave the children to the neglect of firm helps and caretakers. This reduces the amount of time parents should spend with their wards. It should be stressed that even when the extended family is no longer in function, parents especially mothers, should exist around to assistance bring upwards the child in a responsible manner.

7.ane. Relevance

The female parent serves equally a support to the child especially, when the extended family is non around.

eight. Implications to parenting

The traditional African systems as described have gone through the influence of external systems and forces which has transformed the rich parental values we have every bit Africans. The extended family system which is under pressure level is speedily eroding and failing to fulfil its principal role of socialization. In the urban areas for case, the nuclear family is prominently cropping up. Soon, in that location is no cohesion; it is but the private family, his work and his property. This has resulted in less socialization. Currently, families bring up their children in Estate houses whereby one group of a family does not know who his/her neighbour is. In view of that when problems arise in such communities, nobody cares and families are destroyed every bit a consequence of this.

Again, the media has taken precedence in our families that children no longer heed to folk stories anymore; they are rather with the television, internet, foreign books and computers. These modernization gadgets accept limited information with regards to African cultural values and proper traditional parenting which can easily be assessed past all. In view of that a lot of young people take lost touch of the rich cultural values nosotros accept as Africans. A lot of young people presently no longer give a helping manus to the adult and exercise not offer their seat to the elderly whether in public or private.

Presently, teenage pregnancy is on the increase. Young girls practice not regard their cultural values as far as virginity and marriage is concerned. Young couples give birth before they retrieve about marriage. Some are equally a upshot of the conclusion of the homo to be sure that the woman is fertile earlier he marries her. This is for him to prevent childlessness in his habitation and the extended family unit. Others due to poor parental care and control, lack the love and commitment to stay with one adult female. This has ended in the spread of sexually transmitted diseases and bearing children who have been abased past their parents; roaming in the bigger cities equally hawkers, prostitutes, selection pockets and armed robbers.

Let us accept for instance, the married woman or mother who works in the bank and wakes up early dawn each day. If she has no extended family staying with her, then, she has to make sure the children accept been bathed, eaten and goes to work around 5:30 or 6 O'clock am. She spends the whole day at work and comes home when sometimes the children are asleep. These oft times outcome in the children not being well fed, and likewise developing bad habits.

9. Recommendations

From the factors given with regards to parenting, it would be noted that African culture contributes immensely in the upbringing of young people. This exposition is calling on our African nuclear families to ascent upwards if they accept completely neglected the extended family. The extended family is tearing autonomously particularly in our bigger, decorated cities. Nuclear families should make it a indicate to visit their hometowns and patch upwardly with their extended families. Parents should frequently introduce their children to their extended families on both sides.

It is recommended that parents should endeavour to visit the quondam stories, make time and narrate them to their children. During my childhood school days I retrieve when it is story time; we take turns in the classroom to characterize these folktales to ourselves. Soon, the stories are rather the foreign ones we read. I believe our teachers should be reminded of this practice so the children tin can accept rich cultural grooming. Once more, curriculum developers should exist reminded to revisit the times some of the stories were included in the reading books.

At that place is a argument in the Ghanaian language which says that whenever you neglect or abandoned something and later on you become dorsum for it; it is never forbidden. Meaning, you can still revisit whatever you lot neglected. It then behoves on our police makers and cultural authorities, to brand sure that puberty rite is again established. Our parents and community leaders should make sure that every growing child, entering into the adolescent stage has undergone this consequence.

Working mothers and housewives; in as much as there is so much to be done at home and also at the workplace, delight practice endeavour to brand time for the children. Some parents take so much to do that during vacations and weekends when the children are supposed to spend time with them, they allow these children to go for extra tuition which sometimes is unnecessary. These busy schedules of parents have influenced individual schools to organise and so many activities for the children that they are non able to socialise properly and also stay abode and learn at the anxiety of their parents.

10. Decision

African culture is rich. We should not neglect it out rightly because information technology is that which makes u.s.a. Africans. Allow us cover our good parenting practices so we tin can nurture responsible youth for the African continent.

References

1. Addo, P. E. A. (2009).Ananse and the pot of wisdom.Retrieved from http://www.allfolktales.com/wafrica/ananse_pot_of_wisdom.php
2. Adinlofu, E. (2009).Modernity and the "Extended family unit system".Retrieved on iv^thApr, 2009 from www.nigeriansinamerica
3. Baumrind, D. (1967). Child-care practices anteceding three patterns of preschool behaviour.Genetic Psychology Monographs, 75,43-88.
4. Baumrind, D. (1991). The influence of parenting style on boyish competence and substance employ.Periodical of Early on Boyhood, 11(1), 56-95.
5. Ruddy, K. (2012). Parenting styles: The four styles of parenting. Retrieved from http://psychology.about.com/od/developmentalpsychology/a/parenting-style.htm
vi. Dawkins, R. One thousand. (1951). Folklore: Transactions of the folk-lore society. Folklore, 62(4), 417-429.
seven. Degbey, J. L. (2012). Africa family unit structure. Retrieved from http://www.jicef.or.jp/wahec/ful217.htm
8. Emery, D. (2012). Folktale. Retrieved from http://urbanlegends.about.com/od/glossary/g/folktale.htm
ix. Gyekye, K. (1996). African cultural values: An introduction, Legon: Sankofa Publishing Company
10. Maccoby, E.E. (1992). The office of parents in the socialization of children: An historical overview.Developmental Psychology, 28,1006-1017.
xi. Martin, P. (2000). African folktales. Retrieved from http://www.phillipmartin.info/liberis/text_folktales_intro.html
12. O'Neil, D. (2006).What is civilization? Retrieved two^nd June, 2012 from www.anthro.palomar.edu/civilization/culture_1.htm
13. Santrock, J.West. (2006).Life-Span Development (10^th Ed.).New York: McGraw Hill Companies, Inc.
14. Selfgrowth.com (2012). Retrieved from http://www.selfgrowth.com/manufactures/Definition_Parenting.html
15. Tomlinson, M. & Swartz, L. (2003). Imbalances in the knowledge near infancy: the divide between rich and poor countries.Infant mental health periodical,24(6), 547-556.
16. Tylor, E.B. (1958). Religion in primitive culture. New York: Harpers & Brothers.

Written By

Patricia Mawusi Amos

Submitted: June third, 2012 Reviewed: September 9th, 2013 Published: Dec 18th, 2013

© 2013 The Writer(s). Licensee IntechOpen. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Eatables Attribution three.0 License, which permits unrestricted employ, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

hesshompalatcho1980.blogspot.com

Source: https://www.intechopen.com/chapters/45760